We explore scope conditions around industry and connective heterogeneity. The subsequently founded ventures are also more likely to engage in recombination and to cross industry boundaries. This includes a positive impact on the entry of prospective founders into entrepreneurship and an increase in the number of early-stage investors. Beyond its impact on startup founding, newly-built bridges also influence the organizing process for such ventures. We find that the opening of newly-built bridges enhance startup founding in the local geographic community. We explore one such source of connectedness-physical (not metaphorical) bridges. We argue that spatial connectedness is a distinct construct that affects the extent to which spaces are not just proximate but are actually able to link people, ideas, resources and knowledge together. However, much of that work takes spatial connectedness as a given. Various strands of work have explored how spatial proximity helps (metaphorically) bridge barriers to resource mobilization and foster knowledge transfer. This study is essential for planners to understand the underlying mechanism in which power can exert its influence through maps and be aware of the agency that our profession plays in this process. Therefore, this work shows a case of both how the context can affect the way in which cities are represented and how the representation of cities through mapping has influenced the urban practices deployed in it. The results of this temporal comparison display patterns that support the existence of a relationship between the goals of each plan, the operationalization of neighborhood that derives from those goals, their representation in the form of maps and the planning practices applied. The research focuses on a specific topic, neighborhoods, and follows it through a case study, planning in New York from 1970 to today.
This thesis uncovers the extent and implications of this feedback loop between the represented and representation or between mapping and planning. In this way, a feedback loop is initiated, where the context and situation on the ground affects the representation while also this one ends up informing plans and policies that will be applied to the ground. As they are constantly used in the planning practice, this subjectivity intrinsic in the spatial representations can highly affect how the represented spaces are planned. Maps are affected by the context and process of their creation and carry specific understandings or knowledge frameworks. However, although they tend to be envisioned as scientific, rational, and objective depictions of the ground, the process of mapping follows a set of abstraction steps that imply the subjectivity of the represented. Maps are a central tool to explore spatial relationships used both for analysis and implementation within the urban planning field. Basing findings on thousands of interviews conducted through door-to-door canvassing in the Los Angeles area as well as other neighborhood communities, From the Ground Up reveals the different ways neighborhoods function and why these differences matter. Grannis also introduces and explores two geographic concepts-t-communities and street islands-to capture the subtle features constraining residents' perceptions of their environment and community. He examines the households that relocate in order to choose their neighbors, the choices of interactions that develop, and the exchange of beliefs and influence that impact neighborhood communities over time. Seamlessly integrating discussions of geography, household characteristics, and lifestyle, Grannis demonstrates that neighborhood communities exhibit dynamic processes throughout the different stages. Highlighting the linked importance of geography and children to the emergence of neighborhood communities, Rick Grannis models how neighboring progresses through four stages: when geography allows individuals to be conveniently available to one another when they have passive contacts or unintentional encounters when they actually initiate contact and when they engage in activities indicating trust or shared norms and values. Where do neighborhoods come from and why do certain resources and effects-such as social capital and collective efficacy-bundle together in some neighborhoods and not in others? From the Ground Up argues that neighborhood communities emerge from neighbor networks, and shows that these social relations are unique because of particular geographic qualities.
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